Some others, for example those spoken in Horan and central and southern Palestine, are in sharp contrast with the urban dialects. Shared features in the whole area include b- as indicative and non-contingency marker in the imperfect, contrasting in function, but probably not in ety- mology, with the Egyptian present tense marker b i -.
The southern half of the Greater Syrian dialect area, up to Beirut, shares the use of split- morpheme negations with Egyptian and North African dialects, whereas in the northern half, like in the qaltu dialects, they are not used Behnstedt , map As in many parts of the Arabic-speaking world, in most of Greater Syria the contrast between the urban and the rural dialects has traditionally been noticeable.
The first division line goes between the Sj and the Si dialects. Group Sz comprises the rural dialects spoken in central Palestine as well as the oasis of Suxne in the Syrian Desert. The rural dialects to the north of Damascus and in the northern half of Lebanon are 'rural S ' dialects'.
The same urbanizing development is going on in Palestinian dialects. It occurs in Lebanon and coastal Syrian dialects as well; in rural areas it seems to be a progressive feature cf. Behnstedt , map 3, and Bergstrasser , map 2. A trait typical of most Lower Egyptian dialects is the place of the anaptyxis. In them, in contrast to virtually all other sedentary dialects outside the Arabian Peninsula, three-consonant clusters CCC, CC, CC are broken up so as to form open syllables maps A further salient trait of Lower Egyptian is the Cairene word accent bd'ara, madrdsa, yixbtzu , con- trasting with Upper Egyptian in which the initial syllable is stressed maps In contrast to Mesopotamian and Syrian dialects, in Cairene and most of the Delta dialects long vowels are shortened in closed syllables: kdtib, fern, katba, pi.
In the sg. The short demonstrative pronouns sg. The distal demonstrative pronouns in Cairo and central Delta are dukha, dikha, dukham; 'how? A lexical hallmark of Egyptian Arabic is issanddi 'this year'; in dilwa'ti 'now' probably an older place- ment of the demonstrative pronoun is preserved. The Western dialects The Western dialects can be divided into two major groups: the so-called pre-Hilali sedentary dialects and the Bedouin dialects.
The former hark back to the first phase of Arab immigration 7th-ioth centuries C. The rural dialects of the Jbala in northern Morocco as well as those spoken around Nedroma in the northwestern corner of Algeria and in the neighborhood of Djidjelli and Collo in northeastern Algeria also belong to this phase.
These dialects display considerable substrate influence from Berber languages. In the 1 ith century the originally Najdi tribes of Band Sulaym and Band Hilal and the southern Arabian tribe of the Ma'qil moved westward and occupied the North African plains and steppes. At present, Sulaymi Bedouin dialects are spoken in Libya, southern Tunisia, and northeastern Algeria; eastern Hilall dialects in central Tunisia and eastern Algeria; central Hilali in central and southern Algeria; northern Hilall in the northern part of central Algeria; and Ma'qill dialects in northwestern Algeria and Morocco.
The differences between the Bedouin dialects in the whole Western dialect area are rel- atively slight. As a result of the Bedouin migrations, clear- cut distinctions developed between urban, rural, and Bedouin dialects.
The long belt of urban pre-Hilali dialects begins with the old Tunisian cities of al-Qayrawan, Mahdiya, Sousse, and Tunis. In the westernmost part of Algeria the pre-Hilali dialects include the dialect of Tlemcen, the old urban center of Orania, surrounded by a wide area of Bedouin dialects, and to the northwest of it, the dialect of Nedroma. In Morocco, old urban dialects are spoken in Old Fes, Rabat, Sale, Taza, Tangier, and Tetouan; these constitute the northern group of urban Moroccan, with the present tense marker kd- as a salient feature, distin- guishing the group from the southern urban Moroccan spoken in Marrakesh and New Fes, which have td-.
The new cities of Casablanca and Mogador represent Bedouin-type dialects Fischer and Jastrow The pre-Hilali dialects of the Magrib can be divided into an Eastern and a Western branch. The Eastern branch, comprising Libya, Tunisia, and easternmost Algeria, has a more conserva- tive structure, as is apparent from the following phonological traits. The interdental fricatives are retained in all Tunisian dialects except Mahdiya and the Jewish dialects.
Inherited short vowels - e. When classified according to the Eastern vs. Western division, Maltese undoubtedly represents the latter. In a contrastive analysis on the basis of 37 isoglosses, Maltese shared 25 with the urban pre-Hilali magribi dialects Vanhove In Algeria, the old urban dialects of the interior, except the prestigious dialect of Tlemcen, have been influenced by neighboring Bedouin dialects; in Morocco, this is the case with Marrakesh and Meknes.
The rural dialects spoken in wide areas adjacent to Djidjelli and Nedroma have exerted a considerable influence on the dialects of these towns; in Morocco, the same development has taken place in Tangier Fischer and Jastrow ; Iraqui-Sinaceur The population of Algiers, one of the pre-Hilali urban dialects: classification 6lO centers, has during the last few generations grown too heterogeneous to render it meaningful to speak about its dialect any more Boucherit In Libya, the most closely seden- tary-type dialect is that spoken in Tripoli, which can be characterized as a Bedouinized former urban dialect.
Classification according to religious affiliation In many Arab cities, religion correlates more or less closely with dialect. One of the most notice- able cases is the situation in the Mesopotamian dialects. The dialect of the Christians of Baghdad differs from that of the Muslims in sev- eral points, among them the following: the inter- dental fricatives have become postdental stops vs. The Jewish dialect, which until the beginning of the s was spoken by a significant number of the population of Baghdad, was to a high degree identical with that spoken by the Christians.
Salient Jewish Arabic features were, e. In Mosul, where the whole population irre- spective of religious affiliation speaks qaltu dialects, the differences are minimal when com- pared with Baghdad Jastrow In Aleppo differences are also found between the dialects of the Muslims and the Christians.
At the beginning of the 20th century there still were different Christian dialects in different quarters, but since then these divisions have blurred Behnstedt The division between two different dialect types in Bahrain is parallel with the earlier devel- opment in Lower Iraq. Although representing the Shi'i-Sunni split, it is in fact a result of two phases of settlement: the Shi'i population speak the old rural Bahama dialect, which displays typical sedentary devices, whereas the Sunni newcomers speak a dialect of the 'AnazI Bedouin type Holes In North Africa the Jewish Arabic dialects are of urban type and represent the first phase of Arab settlement.
In Oran and some towns in the region of Algiers, the Jewish dialects represent the seden- tary, and the Muslim dialects the Bedouin type. As pointed out by Blanc 16 , the parallel with the distribution of the qaltu vs. Here, as in all other cases of dialect differences along the lines of reli- gious affiliation, the differences - besides reli- gious-cultural technical terms - can mainly be attributed to settlement history.
Classification of dialects on the Eastern-Western boundary 7. However, they exhibit many important features of the Egyptian type as well, among them the syllable structure F ; the —» 'bukara syndrome'; absence of hd- in demonstrative pronouns and placing them after the noun; and the inflection of the verbs kal 'to eat' and xad 'to take' Woidich It is therefore obvious that the aktibhtiktib vs.
In a strictly synchronic classification two alternative solu- tions may be applied: these dialects might be defined as part of a transitional area between the dialects: classification Egyptian and the magribi dialects, or the ques- tion of their belonging to either of them might be solved with reference to the classificatory weight of different isoglosses. However, no satisfactory theory has as yet been created which would give adequate tools for measurement.
But as soon as the question is asked, whether these oasis dialects basically belong to the sphere of Egyptian dialects displaying adstrate features of magribi type, or vice versa, diachronic and extralinguistic criteria will be involved. Since there is a gap of one thousand years in our knowledge of the history of the oases and of the dialects spoken in them, different conclusions can be drawn.
Woidich regards the dialects of the two oases as isolated and peripheral dialects belonging to the greater Egyptian dialect area, with greatest resemblance to the dialects spoken in Fayyum and the province of BanI Swef, while the Western traits are best explained as results of dialect contact Behnstedt , however, points out that the short demonstrative pronouns and the forms of the verbs kal and xad are well attested Western forms from al-Andalus, and also the syllable structure in al-Farafira can be inter- preted as retention of a very conservative magribi feature, known from the dialect of al- Andalus.
One may also ask why the contrast zawz vs. According to Behnstedt, the first Arab immigrants to the oases may very well have been magribi tribes, perhaps speaking a dialect resembling the Andalusian type. Arabic arrived there from southern Egypt in the 14th century at the latest. In the question of the division of Arabic into Western and Eastern groups, this region is of interest because immigrants from east and west may have met here.
This may be reflected by the occurrence of both the Eastern b aktub-naktub and the Western baktub-nak- tubu imperfect patterns. However, since one and the same speaker will vary across the different paradigms, they cannot be regarded as two isoglosses but rather as variants of a single vari- able Owens , De-Bedouinization, sedentarization, and Bedouinization developments The dialects spoken in the Arabian Peninsula, except its southwestern parts, are Bedouin or former Bedouin dialects.
In sedentary environ- ments the Bedouin dialects tend to adopt reduc- tional and innovative traits, plausibly as results of increased dialect contact. For this task the British sculptor and type designer Eric Gill was commis- sioned. Alien and error-ridden, the typeface is clearly unfit for printing Arabic. The real prob- lem is, that Arabic script structures and aesthetics remain an intriguing black hole in Western perception of the Middle East.
This warrants further research. Blair, Islamic Calligraphy, p. It has been observed that printing and paper are companion inventions that cannot exist without each other see: Carter, the invention of printing in China. The closely related art of xylography or wood printing Gk.
This technology used stamps to multiply complete pag- es. Typography is mechanized text manufacture by means of re-usable mass-produced stamps for individual alphabetic elements Gk. However, there is evidence of pre-European typography with moveable wooden type in Syro-Aramaic-derived Uighur Turkic texts in the same domains that ware instru- mental in passing on the knowledge of paper making to the Islamic civilization.
Arabic as Islam-related script In this article the term Arabic script is synonymous with Islam-related script, since its introduction is without exception associated with Islam, e. Likewise, Latin is a Catholicism-related script, Greek, Coptic and Cyrillic are Greek Orthodoxy-related writing systems, Hebrew is a Judaism-related writing system, Devanagari is a Hinduism-related writing system, all irrespective of the languages rendered. Arabic typography is a by-product of Latin typography In pre-typographic manuscript Latin, each nominal alphabetic letter grapheme, infra could take multiple, context-dependent physical variations allographs, infra.
Some letter sequences fused into integrated letter blocks e. The governing rule system can be called a script grammar see infra. In its initial stages, typography had to reproduce this behaviour accurately in order to cre- ate an acceptable replacement of contemporary text manufacture. Early typographers achieved this by creating multiple glyphs where necessary particularly to cover non- final and final positional variants and typographical ligatures to capture inseparably fused characters: Gutenberg used some sorts allographs and ligatures to handle 22 characters.
Typography is modelling text manufacture for mechanical reproduction Typography started as a case of model making, or synthesis based on analysis. Early printed texts, incunabula, evidence that the focus of the invention was the rendition of all aspects of existing manuscript text production.
The acceptation and establishment of typography created room for later improvement, rationalization and redesign of the structure of alphabetic writing.
In phonology, the smallest functional unit of sound is the phoneme. It is not heard, but perceived. What one hears are contextually conditioned allophones, that can be recorded acoustically. In Arabic orthography, the smallest functional unit of spelling is the grapheme.
The grapheme forms the unit of Arabic text input, which today is encoded according to the Unicode Standard see: Unicode. What one sees of graphemes are contextually conditioned allo- graphs, that can be recorded graphically. The allograph forms the unit of Arabic text output and typographic design. In either case they constitute a letter block.
The letter block is the minimum unit of script for- mation and therefore both of script grammar see infra and of typography. The letter block is surrounded by space. Whether the surrounding space implies a word boundary or an internal segmentation is typographically relevant.
The letter block emphatically differs from a word: it is the unit of line layout, including spacing and ligating inside and between words. The archiphoneme is a bundle of shared features between two or more phonemes, minus their distinc- tive features. The archigrapheme is the bundle of shared features between two or more graphemes, minus their distinctive features. The archigrapheme is a key tool in analysing Arabic script. In the Arabic writing system, the archigrapheme practically corresponds to the traditional Arabic concept of rasm: the main ductus without diacritics.
Graphically, archigraphemes are visualized by allographs stripped of their diacritics: reduced allographs. In transliteration these are represented as ebd a llh. As long as there is no interaction between diacritics, vowels and the skeleton script, the archigrapheme is effective for representing Arabic script structures.
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Imprints and Trademarks. Offices Worldwide. Conference and Book Fairs. However whereas in English, a low fall is interpreted as hostile, and a high fall as brisk and business-like, in Arabic a low fall represents an ordinary question, with no connotations of hostility, while a high fall suggests a high degree of interest verging on objection and disbelief.
In yes-no questions, El Hassan finds that both Arabic and English usually employ a rising tune. In a comparison of Lebanese Arabic with American English Chahal , it was found that while mid-scaled or downstepped plateau contours occur in both languages, in English they are characteristic of stylized calling contours Ladd, whereas in Lebanese Arabic, they denote statements conveying a sense of mild reproach. Also, whereas incompleteness is indicated by falling-rising tunes in English, in Lebanese Arabic it is indicated by plateau tunes.
Phonotactically, both English and Lebanese Arabic require similar rules of association of pitch accents to lexically stressed syllables, and nuclear accents to rightmost positions.
As for phonological contrasts, it was found that whereas English contrasts left-headed versus right-headed bitonals e. Also English displays a caterigorical contrast dependent on the phonetic alignment of one tone within the boundaries of the accented syllable e. Conclusion Based on the above literature, it is found that Arabic falls within the typology of intonational languages where the linguistic usage of pitch applies at the level of the utterance as a whole.
Arabic thus differs from languages such as Mandarin Chinese, where tone is used lexically. Pitch in Arabic also carries out both prominence and grouping functions. Other tones demarcate the right edge of certain intonational boundaries occurring in the constituency hierarchy of the language. Arabic is thus similar to languages such as English and Dutch, which carry out these functions, and is dissimilar to languages like French or Korean where pitch is seen to fulfill a purely delimitative function.
Related to the prominence-enhancing function is the classification of Arabic as a stress-accent language; intonationally assigned prominence patterns in the language demonstrate non-tonal stress cues. The by-product of the combination of prominence and edge tone types is a tune which gives the utterance additional meaning not predicted by that of the text.
Three basic contours are shared by all dialects of Arabic: falling, rising, and level or plateau contours. Additional tunes may be found, depending on the particular dialect examined. While these tunes may be found in form in other languages such as English, they may differ in the meanings that they portray, in the phonotactic constraints that they follow and in the phonological contrasts that they display.
Anthropological Linguistics Alharbi, Lutfi. Beckman, Mary. Language and Cognitive Processes Stress and Non-stress Accent. Dordrecht: Foris. Benkirane, Thami.
Bolinger, Dwight. Language Bruce, Gosta. Swedish Word Accents in Sentence Perspective. Lund: Gleerup. Chahal, Dana. Corvetto, Ines. Lingua e Stile 17,2. De Jong, Kenneth and Bushra Zawaydeh.
Journal of Phonetics El-Hassan, Shahir. Papers and Studies in Contrastive Linguistics El-Imam, Youssef. Computer Speech and Language 4.
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